Inside Ancient Alexandria: A Journey Through History's Greatest Port

Founded by Alexander the Great in 331 BC, Alexandria was the ancient world’s largest city before Rome, blending Egyptian, Greek, and Roman influences. Renowned for the Great Library and the Lighthouse of Alexandria, it thrived for nearly a millennium as a hub of trade and learning.

Today, however, the city faces severe threats from coastal erosion and rising sea levels—resulting in the loss of 280 buildings over the past 20 years. With the collapse rate now at 40 buildings per year, archaeologists are urgently documenting submerged ruins before they disappear.

The Founding of Alexandria: From Rhakotis to Empire

Alexandria's origins trace back to Rhakotis, a significant Egyptian settlement dating to around 1000 BC—centuries before Alexander the Great's arrival. Contrary to the myth of a mere fishing village, Rhakotis comprised twelve villages, forming a well-established community nearly 700 years before Alexandria's founding.

The pre-Alexandrian settlement of Rhakotis

Archaeological findings show that Rhakotis, the ancient settlement that became Alexandria, existed at least seven centuries before 331 BC. Evidence from underwater sediment cores, including pottery fragments and elevated lead levels, confirms significant human activity in the East Harbor long before Alexander the Great's arrival. The site's natural strategic advantage as a safe harbor was even noted by Homer in the Odyssey, highlighting its long-standing importance.

Alexander the Great's vision and city planning

Following his conquest of Egypt in 332 BC, Alexander the Great personally oversaw the planning of a new Hellenistic capital: Alexandria. The city was designed by the architect Dinocrates using a grid system with two main streets intersecting at right angles, creating a chessboard pattern.

A memorable event occurred during the planning when flour was used to mark the city's layout, and flocks of birds ate it. Alexander's soothsayer interpreted this not as a bad omen, but as a divine sign that the city would one day "provide sustenance for the whole planet."

Why Alexandria's location was strategic

Alexandria's success was due to its strategic location on a narrow strip of land between the Mediterranean Sea and Lake Mareotis, which provided access to both sea and inland trade.

The city also benefited from key resources like papyrus and a reliable fresh water supply from the Nile. Natural protection from floods and the sheltered harbors created by Pharos Island further fueled its rapid growth, allowing it to become the world's largest city for centuries.

The Golden Age of Ancient Alexandria

Alexander's death in 323 BC marked the beginning of Alexandria's most extraordinary chapter. Ptolemy I Soter assumed control of Egypt, founding what would emerge as the wealthiest kingdom in the Hellenistic world. Three centuries of Ptolemaic rule followed, during which Alexandria achieved intellectual and commercial heights unmatched by any Mediterranean city of its era.

The rise of the Ptolemaic dynasty

Ptolemy I Soter, who became pharaoh in 305 BC, was a shrewd ruler. He not only kept Alexandria's diverse Greek, Egyptian, and Jewish populations separate but also introduced Egypt's first monetary system and the syncretic Serapis cult, which merged Greek and Egyptian religions.

His son, Ptolemy II, further solidified the dynasty's power by creating royal monopolies on key industries like papyrus, oil, textiles, and brewing, systematically monetizing the economy and amassing enormous wealth.

The Library of Alexandria and the Mouseion

The most lasting legacy of the Ptolemaic dynasty was their commitment to knowledge, which led to the creation of the Library of Alexandria and the Mouseion (a precursor to modern museums).

The library was a massive repository that held about 500,000 papyrus scrolls, making it the largest in the ancient world. To attract the best minds, the Ptolemies offered scholars generous salaries, free food and housing, and exemption from taxes, turning Alexandria into a premier center for learning.

Cultural diversity and intellectual life

Alexandria's unique blend of cultures fostered significant intellectual achievements. The city was a hub for scholars like Euclid, who developed systematic mathematics, and Archimedes, who made groundbreaking discoveries in physics.

Literary figures such as Theocritus and Callimachus also thrived there. This vibrant environment, which mixed Egyptian, Greek, and other Mediterranean traditions, led to major advancements in fields like mathematics, mechanics, physics, geography, and medicine, influencing human knowledge for millennia.

Alexandria as a trade and maritime hub

Alexandria's geography made it a commercial powerhouse, connecting Mediterranean trade with Nile commerce. This strategic location allowed it to become a vital link for international trade, evidenced by the staggering volume of goods like the 150,000 tons of Egyptian wheat shipped to Rome annually. The city's innovative double harbor system, connected by canals through the Heptastadium, ensured ships had a safe place to anchor regardless of the weather.

Architectural and Cultural Marvels of Alexandria

The monuments of ancient Alexandria stand as testament to human ambition realized in stone, bronze, and marble. Each structure tells a story of engineering prowess and artistic vision that captivated the ancient world, leaving behind traces that continue to spark wonder among modern explorers of the past.

The Lighthouse of Alexandria (Pharos)

The Lighthouse of Alexandria, also known as the Pharos, was a monumental structure that stood over 350 feet tall, making it one of the tallest human-made structures of the ancient world. Built between 280 and 247 BCE, it guided ships with a powerful beacon created by polished bronze mirrors reflecting a flame.

The lighthouse had a sophisticated design with a square base, an octagonal middle, and a cylindrical top. It was eventually destroyed by a series of earthquakes between 956 and 1303 CE, and its stones were later used by Sultan Qāʾit Bey to build a fortress in 1477.

The Serapeum and Pompey's Pillar

The monument known as Pompey's Pillar is a historical misnomer, as it was actually built between 298 and 302 CE to honor Emperor Diocletian. This 88-foot tall granite column is the only ancient monument in Alexandria still standing in its original location.

It once served as the entrance to the magnificent Serapeum, a temple complex dedicated to the hybrid god Serapis. The Serapeum also housed a smaller collection of scrolls from the Great Library until the complex was destroyed by Christian zealots in 391 CE.

The Catacombs of Kom El Shoqafa

Discovered by accident in 1900, the Catacombs of Kom El Shoqafa are Alexandria’s most remarkable underground necropolis, dating to the 2nd century CE. Spread across three levels, the site features a spiral staircase, burial chambers, a rotunda, and a funerary banquet hall. The catacombs reflect Alexandria’s multicultural heritage, blending Egyptian, Greek, and Roman elements—such as Egyptian deities carved in Roman attire within Greek-style architecture.

The Royal Quarter and Cleopatra's Palace

The Royal Quarter of ancient Alexandria, a 260-hectare area along the Great Harbor, once contained the palaces and gardens of the Ptolemaic dynasty. In the 1990s, underwater archaeologist Franck Goddio discovered the ruins of Cleopatra's palace on the now-submerged island of Antirhodos. The Mediterranean seabed holds a wealth of artifacts, including colossal statues, sphinxes, marble columns, and a possible sculpture of Caesarion, Cleopatra's son. These artifacts are submerged because of earthquakes and tsunamis that occurred after the end of the Ptolemaic era.

The ancient city layout and grid system

Alexandria was designed using the Hippodamian grid system, featuring intersecting main roads and a checkerboard layout. Its five districts were named with Greek letters that spelled out "Built by King Alexander Son of God," reflecting Alexander’s divine ambitions. The Canopic Way (now Ṭarīq al-Ḥurriyyah) served as the main east-west route, while the Street of Soma (modern Shāriʿ al-Nabī Dānyāl) is believed to house Alexander the Great’s tomb.

Rediscovering Ancient Alexandria Today

Centuries have passed since Alexandria's grandeur disappeared beneath Mediterranean waters, yet the city's secrets continue emerging from their watery graves. Modern archaeologists, climate scientists, and preservation specialists now work against an accelerating clock to recover and safeguard what remains of this legendary metropolis.

Underwater archaeology and sunken ruins

In 1994, archaeologists from the Center for Alexandrian Studies (CEAlex) began exploring Alexandria’s submerged ruins, uncovering around 3,500 artifacts—including sphinxes, obelisks, and statues blending Greek and Egyptian styles. Using modern technologies like photogrammetry and digital reconstruction, researchers are now piecing together these remnants to visualize the legendary Pharos lighthouse.

Modern excavations and key findings

Recent archaeological work on land in Alexandria has been just as fruitful as underwater expeditions. Excavations have uncovered parts of the Alexandria Canal's lock and basin system from the 1840s, and in 2009, a statue of Alexander the Great was unearthed. Ongoing investigations in the royal quarter continue to reveal significant finds, including foundation stones from large structures, sections of the original royal road, and an elaborate Ptolemaic-era tunnel.

Climate change and coastal erosion threats

Modern Alexandria confronts an existential crisis that grows more severe each year. The acceleration of structural collapses tells a stark story—what once amounted to roughly one building lost annually has surged to 40 buildings per year over the past decade. Each year, the Mediterranean claims another 3.5 meters of Alexandria's coastline, placing approximately 7,000 structures in immediate danger of collapse.

Preservation efforts and museum projects

Efforts to safeguard Alexandria’s heritage have led to key preservation initiatives. The Alexandria Preservation Trust is cataloging historic buildings, while engineers use advanced digital scanning to create virtual reconstructions of newly recovered lighthouse stones. Proposed coastal protection strategies include building sand dune systems and planting vegetation barriers to defend the city’s eroding shoreline.

Key Takeaways

Ancient Alexandria reveals how strategic location, cultural diversity, and intellectual investment can create lasting civilizational impact that transcends physical destruction.

• Strategic Origins: Alexandria evolved from the Egyptian settlement of Rhakotis into the ancient world’s largest city through Alexander the Great’s vision and the Ptolemies’ development of trade and intellectual hubs.

• Golden Age of Knowledge: Institutions like the Library of Alexandria and the Mouseion fostered groundbreaking advancements in mathematics, physics, and geography through cultural exchange.

• Architectural Achievements: Iconic structures such as the 350-foot Pharos lighthouse and the Kom El Shoqafa catacombs reflected a fusion of Egyptian, Greek, and Roman engineering ingenuity.

• Underwater Discoveries: Archaeologists have recovered over 3,500 submerged relics, including parts of Cleopatra’s palace and the legendary lighthouse, offering rare insights into ancient Alexandria.

• Environmental Threats: Coastal erosion—accelerated by climate change—is destroying 40 buildings annually, a dramatic rise from just one per year a decade ago.

• Modern Preservation: Digital reconstruction and archaeological initiatives continue to uncover and protect Alexandria’s legacy, underscoring the timeless relevance of ancient urban planning, intellectual pursuit, and cultural collaboration.

FAQs

Q1. What made Alexandria such an important city in ancient Egypt?
 

Alexandria's strategic location on Egypt’s Mediterranean coast, near the Nile Delta, positioned it as a major hub for international trade and maritime power. Its innovative dual harbor system facilitated large-scale commerce across Africa, Asia, and Europe. Combined with the presence of the Great Library and the Mouseion, it became the ancient world’s leading center for science, philosophy, and cross-cultural exchange—placing Alexandria at the heart of Egypt’s intellectual golden age.

Q2. Who founded Alexandria and when?

 Alexandria was founded in 331 BC by Alexander the Great, who personally chose the site and oversaw its planning. His vision was to establish a model Hellenistic city in Egypt, uniting Greek urbanism with Egyptian heritage—an ambition realized under the rule of the Ptolemies, who transformed Alexandria into a global capital of learning and commerce.

Q3. What are Alexandria’s most iconic ancient landmarks?

 Visitors to Alexandria, Egypt, can still explore remnants of its legendary landmarks:
The Lighthouse of Alexandria (Pharos), one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World

The Great Library of Alexandria, a beacon of ancient knowledge

The Serapeum and Pompey’s Pillar, a Roman-era temple dedicated to Serapis

The Catacombs of Kom El Shoqafa, showcasing Greco-Roman-Egyptian funerary art
 These sites continue to attract tourists seeking ancient history along the Mediterranean coast.

Q4. How is modern archaeology uncovering Alexandria’s hidden past?
 

Thanks to underwater archaeology off the coast of Alexandria, over 3,500 submerged artifacts—including remnants of the royal quarter, Cleopatra’s palace, and Pharos lighthouse—have been recovered since 1994. On land, excavations in Alexandria's Kom El Dikka and Shallalat Gardens have unearthed Greco-Roman theaters, canals, and statues. These discoveries position Alexandria as one of Egypt’s most dynamic archaeological destinations.

Q5. What environmental challenges threaten Alexandria today?

 Modern Alexandria faces urgent threats from coastal erosion and rising sea levels, worsened by climate change. The city has lost 280 buildings in the past two decades, with the current rate at 40 collapses per year, compared to just one a decade ago.

With Alexandria’s shoreline retreating 3.5 meters annually, about 7,000 coastal structures are at risk, including historic districts near the Corniche and Stanley Bridge. Preservation efforts—including digital documentation and protective shoreline projects—are now critical to safeguarding Egypt’s Mediterranean heritage.